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My Minds Mine on Discogs
My Minds Mine
Profile:
Grindcore band from Friesland The Netherlands. Formed in 1995, split up in 2002 and reformed in 2014.

Members:
Rosco - vocals
Shantia - guitar
Bato - bass
Ragnar - drumsMore
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Bert (8), Ragnar (18), Rooth, Rosco (3), Shantia, Ype
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Between Soothing Consolation And Uncontrollable Madness
2 versions Rot Away Records 1998
My Minds Mine - Scenes Of The Complete Annihilation Of This Planet album art
Scenes Of The Complete Annihilation Of This Planet
3 versions Amenta Records 2002
My Minds Mine - Passengers Of The Void album art
Passengers Of The Void
8 versions Fast & Furious Records, Selfmadegod Records 2018
My Minds Mine - My Minds Mine I Sick Of Stupidity album art
My Minds Mine / Sick Of Stupidity - My Minds Mine I Sick Of Stupidity
5 versions EveryDayHate 2018
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My Minds Mine - Unseen World album art
Unseen World
2 versions Rot Away Records 1999
My Minds Mine - My Minds Mine / Idiocy Of Grotesque album art
My Minds Mine / Idiocy Of Grotesque - My Minds Mine / Idiocy Of Grotesque
2 versions Rot Away Records 2000
My Minds Mine - My Minds Mine / Unholy Grave album art
My Minds Mine / Unholy Grave - My Minds Mine / Unholy Grave ‎(7", EP) Rot Away Records RAR 003 2000
My Minds Mine - My Minds Mine / Violent Headache album art
My Minds Mine / Violent Headache - My Minds Mine / Violent Headache ‎(7") Mortville Records MORT:005 2000
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Head Hits Concrete / My Minds Mine - Head Hits Concrete / My Minds Mine
2 versions Sounds Of Betrayal 2001
My Minds Mine - My Minds Mine / Suffering Quota Split album art
My Minds Mine / Suffering Quota - My Minds Mine / Suffering Quota Split
3 versions Wolfsbane Records 2017
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My Minds Mine - Passengers Of The Void LP FULL ALBUM (2018 - Grindcore)
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My Minds Mine / Sick Of Stupidity split LP (2018) Full Album (Grindcore)
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My Minds Mine - 48 Reasons To Leave This Planet
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My Minds Mine - Deceptive Attitude
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My Minds Mine - ' Scenes Of The Complete Annihilation Of This Planet '
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My Minds Mine - Insane World
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My Minds Mine - message to the majors
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ometimes, especially when writing a story or a script about a highly unusual situation, you find that you've just loaded up your protagonist or some other fairly important character with lots of potentially Unfortunate Implications. Alas, trying to have your character explain to everybody why this is Not What It Looks Like is likely to ruin the flow of the plot, and will probably just make your audience even more suspicio

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WARNING: he speaks Australian, incl the Australia word that is too much for most ears to handle in America

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who could ever disagree with this man, he's too precious

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Acts of Union 1707
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Union of England and Scotland" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Union of England and Scotland Act 1603 or Treaty of Union.
Union with Scotland Act 1706[1]
Act of Parliament

Parliament of England
Long title An Act for a Union of the Two Kingdoms of England and Scotland
Citation 1706 c. 11
Territorial extent Kingdom of England (inc. Wales); subsequently, United Kingdom
Dates
Commencement 1 May 1707
Status: Current legislation
Revised text of statute as amended
Union with England Act 1707
Act of Parliament

Parliament of Scotland
Long title Act Ratifying and Approving the Treaty of Union of the Two Kingdoms of Scotland and England
Citation 1707 c. 7
Territorial extent Kingdom of Scotland; subsequently, United Kingdom
Dates
Commencement 1 May 1707
Status: Current legislation
Revised text of statute as amended
Constitutional documents and events relevant to the status of the United Kingdom and its countries
Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom (HM Government).svg
List per year
vte
The Acts of Union (Scottish Gaelic: Achd an Aonaidh) were two Acts of Parliament: the Union with Scotland Act 1706 passed by the Parliament of England, and the Union with England Act passed in 1707 by the Parliament of Scotland. They put into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union that had been agreed on 22 July 1706, following negotiation between commissioners representing the parliaments of the two countries. By the two Acts, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland—which at the time were separate states with separate legislatures, but with the same monarch—were, in the words of the Treaty, "United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain".[2]

The two countries had shared a monarch since the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when King James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne from his double first cousin twice removed, Queen Elizabeth I. Although described as a Union of Crowns, and King James' acknowledgement of his accession to a single Crown,[3] England and Scotland were officially separate Kingdoms until 1707 (as opposed to the implied creation of a single unified Kingdom, exemplified by the later Kingdom of Great Britain). Prior to the Acts of Union there had been three previous attempts (in 1606, 1667, and 1689) to unite the two countries by Acts of Parliament, but it was not until the early 18th century that both political establishments came to support the idea, albeit for different reasons.

The Acts took effect on 1 May 1707. On this date, the Scottish Parliament and the English Parliament united to form the Parliament of Great Britain, based in the Palace of Westminster in London, the home of the English Parliament.[4] Hence, the Acts are referred to as the Union of the Parliaments. On the Union, the historian Simon Schama said "What began as a hostile merger, would end in a full partnership in the most powerful going concern in the world ... it was one of the most astonishing transformations in European history."[5]


Contents
1 Political background prior to 1707
1.1 1603–1660
1.2 1660–1707
2 Political motivations
2.1 English perspective
2.2 Scottish perspective
3 Treaty and passage of the 1707 Acts
4 Provisions
4.1 Related Acts
5 Evaluations
6 300th anniversary
7 Scottish voting records
8 See also
9 References
10 Sources and further reading
11 Other books
12 External links
Political background prior to 1707
1603–1660
Prior to 1603, England and Scotland were separate kingdoms; as Elizabeth I never married, after 1567, her heir became the Stuart king of Scotland, James VI, who was brought up as a Protestant. After her death, the two Crowns were held in personal union by James, as James I of England, and James VI of Scotland. He announced his intention to unite the two, using the royal prerogative to take the title "King of Great Britain", [6] and give a British character to his court and person.[7]


Scottish opposition to Stuart attempts to impose religious union led to the 1638 National Covenant
The 1603 Union of England and Scotland Act established a joint Commission to agree terms, but the English Parliament was concerned this would lead to the imposition of an absolutist structure similar to that of Scotland. James was forced to withdraw his proposals, and attempts to revive it in 1610 were met with hostility.[8]

Instead, he set about creating a unified Church of Scotland and England, as the first step towards a centralised, Unionist state.[9] However, despite both being nominally Episcopalian in structure, the two were very different in doctrine; the Church of Scotland, or kirk, was Calvinist in doctrine, and viewed many Church of England practices as little better than Catholicism.[10] As a result, attempts to impose religious policy by James and his son Charles I ultimately led to the 1639–1651 Wars of the Three Kingdoms.

The 1639–1640 Bishops' Wars confirmed the primacy of the kirk, and established a Covenanter government in Scotland. The Scots remained neutral when the First English Civil War began in 1642, before becoming concerned at the impact on Scotland of a Royalist victory.[11] Presbyterian leaders like Argyll viewed union as a way to ensure free trade between England and Scotland, and preserve a Presbyterian kirk.[12]


The 1643 Solemn League and Covenant between England and Scotland
Under the 1643 Solemn League and Covenant, the Covenanters agreed to provide military support for the English Parliament, in return for religious union. Although the treaty referred repeatedly to 'union' between England, Scotland, and Ireland, political union had little support outside the Kirk Party. Even religious union was opposed by the Episcopalian majority in the Church of England, and Independents like Oliver Cromwell, who dominated the New Model Army.

The Scots and English Presbyterians were political conservatives, who increasingly viewed the Independents, and associated radical groups like the Levellers, as a bigger threat than the Royalists. Both Royalists and Presbyterians agreed monarchy was divinely ordered, but disagreed on the nature and extent of Royal authority over the church. When Charles I surrendered in 1646, they allied with their former enemies to restore him to the English throne.[13]

After defeat in the 1647–1648 Second English Civil War, Scotland was occupied by English troops which were withdrawn once the so-called Engagers whom Cromwell held responsible for the war had been replaced by the Kirk Party. In December 1648, Pride's Purge confirmed Cromwell's political control in England by removing Presbyterian MPs from Parliament, and executing Charles in January 1649. Seeing this as sacrilege, the Kirk Party proclaimed Charles II King of Scotland and Great Britain, and agreed to restore him to the English throne.

Defeat in the 1649–1651 Third English Civil War or Anglo-Scottish War resulted in Scotland's incorporation into the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland, largely driven by Cromwell's determination to break the power of the kirk, which he held responsible for the Anglo-Scottish War.[14] The 1652 Tender of Union was followed on 12 April 1654 by An Ordinance by the Protector for the Union of England and Scotland, creating the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland.[15] It was ratified by the Second Protectorate Parliament on 26 June 1657, creating a single Parliament in Westminster, with 30 representatives each from Scotland and Ireland added to the existing English members.[16]

1660–1707

Battle of Dunbar (1650); Scotland was incorporated into the Commonwealth after defeat in the 1650–1651 Anglo-Scots War.
While integration into the Commonwealth established free trade between Scotland and England, the economic benefits were diminished by the costs of military occupation.[17] Both Scotland and England associated union with heavy taxes and military rule; it had little popular support in either country, and was dissolved after the Restoration of Charles II in 1660.

The Scottish economy was badly damaged by the English Navigation Acts of 1660 and 1663 and wars with the Dutch Republic, its major export market. An Anglo-Scots Trade Commission was set up in January 1668 but the English had no interest in making concessions, as the Scots had little to offer in return. In 1669, Charles II revived talks on political union; his motives were to weaken Scotland's commercial and political links with the Dutch, still seen as an enemy and complete the work of his grandfather James I.[18] Continued opposition meant these negotiations were abandoned by the end of 1669.[19]

Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688, a Scottish Convention met in Edinburgh in April 1689 to agree a new constitutional settlement; during which the Scottish Bishops backed a proposed union in an attempt to preserve Episcopalian control of the kirk. William and Mary were supportive of the idea but it was opposed both by the Presbyterian majority in Scotland and the English Parliament.[20] Episcopacy in Scotland was abolished in 1690, alienating a significant part of the political class; it was this element that later formed the bedrock of opposition to Union.[21]

The 1690s were a time of economic hardship in Europe as a whole and Scotland in particular, a period now known as the Seven ill years which led to strained relations with England.[22] In 1698, the Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies received a charter to raise capital through public subscription.[23] The Company invested in the Darién scheme, an ambitious plan funded almost entirely by Scottish investors to build a colony on the Isthmus of Panama for trade with East Asia.[24] The scheme was a disaster; the losses of over £150,000 severely impacted the Scottish commercial system.[25]

Political motivations

Queen Anne in 1702
The Acts of Union should be seen within a wider European context of increasing state centralisation during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, including the monarchies of France, Sweden, Denmark and Spain. While there were exceptions, such as the Dutch Republic or the Republic of Venice, the trend was clear.[26]

The dangers of the monarch using one Parliament against the other first became apparent in 1647 and 1651. It resurfaced during the 1679 to 1681 Exclusion Crisis, caused by English resistance to the Catholic James II (of England, VII of Scotland) succeeding his brother Charles. James was sent to Edinburgh in 1681 as Lord High Commissioner; in August, the Scottish Parliament passed the Succession Act, confirming the divine right of kings, the rights of the natural heir 'regardless of religion', the duty of all to swear allegiance to that king and the independence of the Scottish Crown. It then went beyond ensuring James's succession to the Scottish throne by explicitly stating the aim was to make his exclusion from the English throne impossible without '...the fatall and dreadfull consequences of a civil war.'[27]

The issue reappeared during the 1688 Glorious Revolution. The English Parliament generally supported replacing James with his Protestant daughter Mary II, but resisted making her Dutch husband William III & II joint ruler. They gave way only when he threatened to return to the Netherlands, and Mary refused to rule without him.[28]

In Scotland, conflict over control of the kirk between Presbyterians and Episcopalians and William's position as a fellow Calvinist put him in a much stronger position. He originally insisted on retaining Episcopacy, and the Committee of the Articles, an unelected body that controlled what legislation Parliament could debate. Both would have given the Crown far greater control than in England but he withdrew his demands due to the 1689–1692 Jacobite Rising.[29]

English perspective

This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The English succession was provided for by the English Act of Settlement 1701, which ensured that the monarch of England would be a Protestant member of the House of Hanover. Until the Union of Parliaments, the Scottish throne might be inherited by a different successor after Queen Anne, who had said in her first speech to the English parliament that a Union was 'very necessary'.[30] The Scottish Act of Security 1704 however was passed after the English parliament without consultation with Scotland, had designated Electoress Sophie of Hanover (granddaughter of James I and VI), as Anne's successor, if she died childless. The Act of Security however granted the Parliament of Scotland, the three Estates,[30] the right to choose a successor and explicitly required a choice different from the English monarch unless the English were to grant free trade and navigation. Next the Alien Act 1705 was passed in the English parliament making Scots in England designated as 'foreign nationals' - and blocking about half of all Scottish trade by boycotting exports to England or its colonies, unless Scotland came back to negotiate a Union.[30] To encourage a Union, 'honours, appointments, pensions and even arrears of pay and other expenses were distributed to clinch support from Scottish peers and MPs.'[31]

Scottish perspective
The Scottish economy was severely impacted by privateers during the 1688 to 1697 Nine Years' War, and the 1701 War of the Spanish Succession, with the Royal Navy focusing on protecting English ships. This compounded the economic pressure caused by the Darien scheme, and the Seven ill years of the 1690s, when between 5–15% of the population died of starvation.[32] The Scottish Parliament was promised financial assistance, protection for its maritime trade, and an end of economic restrictions on trade with England.[33]

The votes of the Court party, influenced by Queen Anne's favourite, the Duke of Queensberry, combined with the majority of the Squadrone Volante, were sufficient to ensure passage of the treaty.[30] Article 15 granted £398,085 10s sterling to Scotland, a sum known as The Equivalent, to offset future liability towards the English national debt, which at the time was £18 million, but as Scotland had no national debt,[30] most of the sum was used to compensate the investors in the Darien scheme, with 58.6% of the fund allocated to its shareholders and creditors.[34]


18th-century French illustration of an opening of the Scottish Parliament
The role played by bribery has long been debated; £20,000 was distributed by the Earl of Glasgow, of which 60% went to James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry, the Queen's Commissioner in Parliament. Another negotiator, Argyll was given an English peerage.[30] Robert Burns is commonly quoted in support of the argument of corruption; "We're bought and sold for English Gold, Such a Parcel of Rogues in a Nation." As historian Christopher Whatley points out, this was actually a 17th-century Scots folk song; but he agrees money was paid, though suggests the economic benefits were supported by most Scots MPs, with the promises made for benefits to peers and MPs,[31] even if it was reluctantly.[35] Professor Sir Tom Devine, agreed that promises of 'favours, sinecures, pensions, offices and straightforward cash bribes became indispensable to secure government majorities'.[36] As for representation going forwards, Scotland was, in the new united parliament only to get 45 MPs, one more than Cornwall, and only 16 (unelected) peers places in the House of Lords.[30]

Sir George Lockhart of Carnwath, the only Scottish negotiator to oppose Union, noted "the whole nation appears against (it)". Another negotiator, Sir John Clerk of Penicuik, who was an ardent Unionist, observed it was "contrary to the inclinations of at least three-fourths of the Kingdom".[37] As the seat of the Scottish Parliament, demonstrators in Edinburgh feared the impact of its loss on the local economy. Elsewhere, there was widespread concern about the independence of the kirk, and possible tax rises.[38]

As the Treaty passed through the Scottish Parliament, opposition was voiced by petitions from shires, burghs, presbyteries and parishes. The Convention of Royal Burghs claimed 'we are not against an honourable and safe union with England', but 'the condition of the people of Scotland, (cannot be) improved without a Scots Parliament'.[39] Not one petition in favour of Union was received by Parliament. On the day the treaty was signed, the carilloner in St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, rang the bells in the tune Why should I be so sad on my wedding day?[40] Threats of widespread civil unrest resulted in Parliament imposing martial law.

Treaty and passage of the 1707 Acts

"Articles of Union otherwise known as Treaty of Union", 1707
Deeper political integration had been a key policy of Queen Anne from the time she acceded to the throne in 1702. Under the aegis of the Queen and her ministers in both kingdoms, the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed to participate in fresh negotiations for a union treaty in 1705.

Both countries appointed 31 commissioners to conduct the negotiations. Most of the Scottish commissioners favoured union, and about half were government ministers and other officials. At the head of the list was Queensberry, and the Lord Chancellor of Scotland, the Earl of Seafield.[41] The English commissioners included the Lord High Treasurer, the Earl of Godolphin, the Lord Keeper, Baron Cowper, and a large number of Whigs who supported union. Tories were not in favour of union and only one was represented among the commissioners.[41]

Negotiations between the English and Scottish commissioners took place between 16 April and 22 July 1706 at the Cockpit in London. Each side had its own particular concerns. Within a few days, and with only one face to face meeting of all 62 commissioners,[30] England had gained a guarantee that the Hanoverian dynasty would succeed Queen Anne to the Scottish crown, and Scotland received a guarantee of access to colonial markets, in the hope that they would be placed on an equal footing in terms of trade.[42]

After negotiations ended in July 1706, the acts had to be ratified by both Parliaments. In Scotland, about 100 of the 227 members of the Parliament of Scotland were supportive of the Court Party. For extra votes the pro-court side could rely on about 25 members of the Squadrone Volante, led by the Marquess of Montrose and the Duke of Roxburghe. Opponents of the court were generally known as the Country party, and included various factions and individuals such as the Duke of Hamilton, Lord Belhaven and Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, who spoke forcefully and passionately against the union, when the Scottish Parliament began its debate on the act in on 3 October 1706, but the deal had already been done.[30] The Court party enjoyed significant funding from England and the Treasury and included many who had accumulated debts following the Darien Disaster.[43]

In Scotland, the Duke of Queensberry was largely responsible for the successful passage of the Union act by the Parliament of Scotland. In Scotland, he also received much criticism from local residents, but in England he was cheered for his action. He had personally received around half of the funding awarded by the Westminster Treasury for himself. In April 1707, he travelled to London to attend celebrations at the royal court, and was greeted by groups of noblemen and gentry lined along the road. From Barnet, the route was lined with crowds of cheering people, and once he reached London a huge crowd had formed. On 17 April, the Duke was gratefully received by the Queen at Kensington Palace.[44]

Provisions

Heraldic badge of Queen Anne, depicting the Tudor rose and the Scottish thistle growing from the same stem.
Main article: Treaty of Union
The Treaty of Union, agreed between representatives of the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland in 1706, consisted of 25 articles, 15 of which were economic in nature. In Scotland, each article was voted on separately and several clauses in articles were delegated to specialised subcommittees. Article 1 of the treaty was based on the political principle of an incorporating union and this was secured by a majority of 116 votes to 83 on 4 November 1706. To minimise the opposition of the Church of Scotland, an Act was also passed to secure the Presbyterian establishment of the Church, after which the Church stopped its open opposition, although hostility remained at lower levels of the clergy. The treaty as a whole was finally ratified on 16 January 1707 by a majority of 110 votes to 69.[45]

The two Acts incorporated provisions for Scotland to send representative peers from the Peerage of Scotland to sit in the House of Lords. It guaranteed that the Church of Scotland would remain the established church in Scotland, that the Court of Session would "remain in all time coming within Scotland", and that Scots law would "remain in the same force as before". Other provisions included the restatement of the Act of Settlement 1701 and the ban on Roman Catholics from taking the throne. It also created a customs union and monetary union.

The Act provided that any "laws and statutes" that were "contrary to or inconsistent with the terms" of the Act would "cease and become void".

Related Acts
The Scottish Parliament also passed the Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Act 1707 guaranteeing the status of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. The English Parliament passed a similar Act, 6 Anne c.8.

Soon after the Union, the Act 6 Anne c.40—later named the Union with Scotland (Amendment) Act 1707—united the English and Scottish Privy Councils and decentralised Scottish administration by appointing justices of the peace in each shire to carry out administration. In effect it took the day-to-day government of Scotland out of the hands of politicians and into those of the College of Justice.

On 18 December 1707 the Act for better Securing the Duties of East India Goods was passed which extended the monopoly of the East India Company to Scotland.

In the year following the Union, the Treason Act 1708 abolished the Scottish law of treason and extended the corresponding English law across Great Britain.

Evaluations
Scotland benefited, says historian G.N. Clark, gaining "freedom of trade with England and the colonies" as well as "a great expansion of markets". The agreement guaranteed the permanent status of the Presbyterian church in Scotland, and the separate system of laws and courts in Scotland. Clark argued that in exchange for the financial benefits and bribes that England bestowed, what it gained was

of inestimable value. Scotland accepted the Hanoverian succession and gave up her power of threatening England's military security and complicating her commercial relations ... The sweeping successes of the eighteenth-century wars owed much to the new unity of the two nations.[46]

By the time Samuel Johnson and James Boswell made their tour in 1773, recorded in A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland, Johnson noted that Scotland was "a nation of which the commerce is hourly extending, and the wealth increasing" and in particular that Glasgow had become one of the greatest cities of Britain.[47]

300th anniversary

The £2 coin issued in the United Kingdom in 2007 to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the Acts of Union
A commemorative two-pound coin was issued to mark the tercentennial—300th anniversary—of the Union, which occurred two days before the Scottish Parliament general election on 3 May 2007.[48]

The Scottish Government held a number of commemorative events through the year including an education project led by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, an exhibition of Union-related objects and documents at the National Museums of Scotland and an exhibition of portraits of people associated with the Union at the National Galleries of Scotland.[49]

Scottish voting records

Map of commissioner voting on the ratification of the Treaty of Union.
All (or sole) Commissioners absent
All Commissioners present voting for Union
Majority of Commissioners present voting for Union
Equal number of Commissioners voting for and against
Majority of Commissioners present voting against Union
All Commissioners present voting against Union
Voting Records for 16 January 1707 ratification of the Treaty of Union
Commissioner Constituency/Position Party Vote
James Graham, 1st Duke of Montrose Lord President of the Council of Scotland/Stirlingshire Court Party Yes
John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll Court Party Yes
John Hay, 2nd Marquess of Tweeddale Squadrone Volante Yes
William Kerr, 2nd Marquess of Lothian Court Party Yes
John Erskine, Earl of Mar Court Party Yes
John Gordon, 16th Earl of Sutherland Court Party Yes
John Hamilton-Leslie, 9th Earl of Rothes Squadrone Volante Yes
James Douglas, 11th Earl of Morton Yes
William Cunningham, 12th Earl of Glencairn Yes
James Hamilton, 6th Earl of Abercorn Yes
John Ker, 1st Duke of Roxburghe Squadrone Volante Yes
Thomas Hamilton, 6th Earl of Haddington Yes
John Maitland, 5th Earl of Lauderdale Yes
David Wemyss, 4th Earl of Wemyss Yes
William Ramsay, 5th Earl of Dalhousie Yes
James Ogilvy, 4th Earl of Findlater Banffshire Yes
David Leslie, 3rd Earl of Leven Yes
David Carnegie, 4th Earl of Northesk Yes
Earl of Belcarras Yes
Archibald Douglas, 1st Earl of Forfar Yes
William Boyd, 3rd Earl of Kilmarnock Yes
John Keith, 1st Earl of Kintore Yes
Patrick Hume, 1st Earl of Marchmont Squadrone Volante Yes
George Mackenzie, 1st Earl of Cromartie Yes
Archibald Primrose, 1st Earl of Rosebery Yes
David Boyle, 1st Earl of Glasgow Yes
Charles Hope, 1st Earl of Hopetoun likely Linlithgowshire Yes
Henry Scott, 1st Earl of Deloraine Yes
Archibald Campbell, Earl of Illay Yes
William Hay, Viscount Dupplin Yes
William Forbes, 12th Lord Forbes Yes
John Elphinstone, 8th Lord Elphinstone Yes
William Ross, 12th Lord Ross Yes
James Sandilands, 7th Lord Torphichen Yes
Lord Fraser Yes
George Ogilvy, 3rd Lord Banff Yes
Alexander Murray, 4th Lord Elibank Yes
Kenneth Sutherland, 3rd Lord Duffus Yes
Robert Rollo, 4th Lord Rollo Stirlingshire Yes
James Murray, Lord Philiphaugh Lord Clerk Register/Selkirkshire Yes
Adam Cockburn, Lord Ormiston Lord Justice Clerk Yes
Sir Robert Dickson of Inverask Edinburghshire Yes
William Nisbet of Dirletoun Haddingtonshire Squadrone Volante Yes
John Cockburn, younger, of Ormestoun Haddingtonshire Squadrone Volante Yes
Sir John Swintoun of that ilk Berwickshire Court Party Yes
Sir Alexander Campbell of Cessnock Berwickshire Yes
Sir William Kerr of Greenhead Roxburghshire Squadrone Volante Yes
Archibald Douglas of Cavers Roxburghshire Court Party Yes
William Bennet of Grubbet Roxburghshire Court Party Yes
Mr John Murray of Bowhill Selkirkshire Court Party Yes
Mr John Pringle of Haining Selkirkshire Court Party Yes
William Morison of Prestongrange Peeblesshire Court Party Yes
Alexander Horseburgh of that ilk Peeblesshire Yes
George Baylie of Jerviswood Lanarkshire Squadrone Volante Yes
Sir John Johnstoun of Westerhall Dumfriesshire Court Party Yes
William Dowglass of Dornock Dumfriesshire Yes
Mr William Stewart of Castlestewart Wigtownshire Yes
Mr John Stewart of Sorbie Wigtownshire Court Party Yes
Mr Francis Montgomery of Giffan Ayrshire Court Party Yes
Mr William Dalrymple of Glenmuir Ayrshire Court Party Yes
Mr Robert Stewart of Tillicultrie Buteshire Yes
Sir Robert Pollock of that ilk Renfrewshire Court Party Yes
Mr John Montgomery of Wrae Linlithgowshire Yes
John Halden of Glenagies Perthshire Squadrone Volante Yes
Mongo Graham of Gorthie Perthshire Squadrone Volante Yes
Sir Thomas Burnet of Leyes Kincardineshire Court Party Yes
William Seton, younger, of Pitmedden Aberdeenshire Squadrone Volante Yes
Alexander Grant, younger, of that ilk Inverness-shire Court Party Yes
Sir William Mackenzie Yes
Mr Aeneas McLeod of Cadboll Cromartyshire Yes
Mr John Campbell of Mammore Argyllshire Court Party Yes
Sir James Campbell of Auchinbreck Argyllshire Court Party Yes
James Campbell, younger, of Ardkinglass Argyllshire Court Party Yes
Sir William Anstruther of that ilk Fife Yes
James Halyburton of Pitcurr Forfarshire Squadrone Volante Yes
Alexander Abercrombie of Glassoch Banffshire Court Party Yes
Mr James Dunbarr, younger, of Hemprigs Caithness Yes
Alexander Douglas of Eagleshay Orkney and Shetland Court Party Yes
Sir John Bruce, 2nd Baronet Kinross-shire Squadrone Volante Yes
John Scrimsour Dundee Yes
Lieutenant Colonel John Areskine Yes
John Mure Likely Ayr Yes
James Scott Montrose Court Party Yes
Sir John Anstruther, 1st Baronet, of Anstruther Anstruther Easter Yes
James Spittle Inverkeithing Yes
Mr Patrick Moncrieff Kinghorn Court Party Yes
Sir Andrew Home Kirkcudbright Squadrone Volante Yes
Sir Peter Halket Dunfermline Squadrone Volante Yes
Sir James Smollet Dumbarton Court Party Yes
Mr William Carmichell Lanark Yes
Mr William Sutherland Elgin Yes
Captain Daniel McLeod Tain Yes
Sir David Dalrymple, 1st Baronet Culross Court Party Yes
Sir Alexander Ogilvie Banff Yes
Mr John Clerk Whithorn Court Party Yes
John Ross Yes
Hew Dalrymple, Lord North Berwick North Berwick Yes
Mr Patrick Ogilvie Cullen Court Party Yes
George Allardyce Kintore Court Party Yes
William Avis Yes
Mr James Bethun Kilrenny Yes
Mr Roderick McKenzie Fortrose Yes
John Urquhart Dornoch Yes
Daniel Campbell Inveraray Court Party Yes
Sir Robert Forbes Inverurie Yes
Mr Robert Dowglass Kirkwall Yes
Mr Alexander Maitland Inverbervie Court Party Yes
Mr George Dalrymple Stranraer Yes
Mr Charles Campbell Campbeltown Yes
Total Ayes 106
James Hamilton, 4th Duke of Hamilton No
William Johnstone, 1st Marquess of Annandale Annan No
Charles Hay, 13th Earl of Erroll No
William Keith, 9th Earl Marischal No
David Erskine, 9th Earl of Buchan No
Alexander Sinclair, 9th Earl of Caithness No
John Fleming, 6th Earl of Wigtown No
James Stewart, 5th Earl of Galloway No
David Murray, 5th Viscount of Stormont No
William Livingston, 3rd Viscount of Kilsyth No
William Fraser, 12th Lord Saltoun No
Francis Sempill, 10th Lord Sempill No
Charles Oliphant, 7th Lord Oliphant No
John Elphinstone, 4th Lord Balmerino No
Walter Stuart, 6th Lord Blantyre Linlithgow No
William Hamilton, 3rd Lord Bargany Queensferry No
John Hamilton, 2nd Lord Belhaven and Stenton No
Lord Colvill No
Patrick Kinnaird, 3rd Lord Kinnaird No
Sir John Lawder of Fountainhall Haddingtonshire No
Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun Haddingtonshire No
Sir Robert Sinclair, 3rd Baronet Berwickshire No
Sir Patrick Home of Rentoun Berwickshire No
Sir Gilbert Elliot of Minto Roxburghshire No
William Bayllie of Lamingtoun Lanarkshire No
John Sinclair, younger, of Stevensone Lanarkshire No
James Hamilton of Aikenhead Lanarkshire No
Mr Alexander Fergusson of Isle Dumfriesshire No
Sir Hugh Cathcart of Carletoun Ayrshire No
John Brisbane, younger, of Bishoptoun Ayrshire No
Mr William Cochrane of Kilmaronock Dumbartonshire No
Sir Humphray Colquhoun of Luss Dumbartonshire No
Sir John Houstoun of that ilk Renfrewshire No
Robert Rollo of Powhouse No
Thomas Sharp of Houstoun Linlithgowshire No
John Murray of Strowan No
Alexander Gordon of Pitlurg Aberdeenshire No
John Forbes of Colloden Nairnshire No
David Bethun of Balfour Fife No
Major Henry Balfour of Dunboog Fife No
Mr Thomas Hope of Rankeillor No
Mr Patrick Lyon of Auchterhouse Forfarshire No
Mr James Carnagie of Phinhaven Forfarshire No
David Graham, younger, of Fintrie Forfarshire No
William Maxwell of Cardines Kirkcudbrightshire No
Alexander McKye of Palgown Kirkcudbrightshire No
James Sinclair of Stempster Caithness No
Sir Henry Innes, younger, of that ilk Elginshire No
Mr George McKenzie of Inchcoulter Ross-shire No
Robert Inglis Edinburgh No
Alexander Robertson Perth No
Walter Stewart No
Hugh Montgomery Glasgow Court Party No
Alexander Edgar Haddington No
Alexander Duff Banffshire No
Francis Molison Brechin No
Walter Scott Jedburgh No
Robert Scott Selkirk No
Robert Kellie Dunbar No
John Hutchesone Arbroath No
Archibald Scheills Peebles No
Mr John Lyon Forfar No
George Brodie Forres No
George Spens Rutherglen No
Sir David Cuningham Lauder No
Mr John Carruthers Lochmaben No
George Home New Galloway No
John Bayne Dingwall No
Mr Robert Fraser Wick No
Total Noes 69
Total Votes 175
Sources: Records of the Parliament of Scotland, Parliamentary Register, p.598
See also
Acts of Union 1800
English independence
History of democracy
List of treaties
MacCormick v Lord Advocate
Parliament of the United Kingdom
Political union
Real union
Scottish independence
Unionism in Scotland
Welsh independence
References
The citation of this Act by this short title was authorised by section 1 of, and Schedule 1 to, the Short Titles Act 1896. Due to the repeal of those provisions, it is now authorised by section 19(2) of the Interpretation Act 1978.
Article I of the Treaty of Union
"House of Commons Journal Volume 1: 31 March 1607". Retrieved 27 October 2020.
Act of Union 1707, Article 3
Simon Schama (presenter) (22 May 2001). "Britannia Incorporated". A History of Britain. Episode 10. 3 minutes in. BBC One.
Larkin, Hughes 1973, p. 19.
Lockyer 1998, pp. 51–52.
Lockyer 1998, pp. 54–59.
Stephen 2010, pp. 55–58.
McDonald 1998, pp. 75–76.
Kaplan 1970, pp. 50–70.
Robertson 2014, p. 125.
Harris 2015, pp. 53–54.
Morrill 1990, p. 162.
Constitution.org
The 1657 Act's long title was An Act and Declaration touching several Acts and Ordinances made since 20 April 1653, and before 3 September 1654, and other Acts
Parliament.uk Archived 12 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine
MacIntosh 2007, pp. 79–87.
Whatley 2001, p. 95.
Lynch 1992, p. 305.
Harris 2007, pp. 404–406.
Whatley 2006, p. 91.
Mitchison 2002, pp. 301–302.
Richards 2004, p. 79.
Mitchison 2002, p. 314.
Munck 2005, pp. 429–431.
Jackson 2003, pp. 38–54.
Horwitz 1986, pp. 10–11.
Lynch 1992, pp. 300–303.
MacPherson, Hamish (27 September 2020). "How the Act of Union came about through a corrupt fixed deal in 1706". The National. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
"Ratification, October 1706 - March 1707". www.parliament.uk. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
Cullen 2010, p. 117.
Whatley 2001, p. 48.
Watt 2007, p. ?.
Whatley 1989, pp. 160–165.
Devine, T. M. (Thomas Martin). The Scottish nation : a modern history. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-7181-9673-8. OCLC 1004568536.
"Scottish Referendums". BBC. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
Bambery 2014, p. ?.
The Humble Address of the Commissioners to the General Convention of the Royal Burrows of this Ancient Kingdom Convened the Twenty-Ninth of October 1706, at Edinburgh.
Notes by John Purser to CD Scotland's Music, Facts about Edinburgh.
"The commissioners". UK Parliament website. 2007. Archived from the original on 19 June 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
"The course of negotiations". UK Parliament website. 2007. Archived from the original on 21 July 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
"Ratification". UK parliament website. 2007. Archived from the original on 19 June 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
"1 May 1707 – the Union comes into effect". UK Parliament website. 2007. Archived from the original on 19 June 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
Riley 1969, pp. 523–524.
G.N. Clark, The Later Stuarts, 1660–1714 (2nd ed. 1956) pp 290–93.
Gordon Brown (2014). My Scotland, Our Britain: A Future Worth Sharing. Simon & Schuster UK. p. 150. ISBN 9781471137518.
House of Lords – Written answers, 6 November 2006, TheyWorkForYou.com
Announced by the Scottish Culture Minister, Patricia Ferguson, 9 November 2006
Sources and further reading
Bambery, Chris (2014). A People's History of Scotland. Verso. ISBN 978-1786637871.
Campbell, R. H. “The Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707. II. The Economic Consequences.” Economic History Review vol. 16, no. 3, 1964, pp. 468–477 online
Harris, Tim (2007). Revolution: The Great Crisis of the British Monarchy, 1685–1720. Penguin. ISBN 978-0141016528.
Harris, Tim (2015). Rebellion: Britain's First Stuart Kings, 1567–1642. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0198743118.
Horwitz, Henry (1986). Parliament, Policy and Politics in the Reign of William III. MUP. ISBN 978-0719006616.
Jackson, Clare (2003). Restoration Scotland, 1660–1690: Royalist Politics, Religion and Ideas. Boydell Press. ISBN 978-0851159300.
Kaplan, Lawrence (May 1970). "Steps to War: The Scots and Parliament, 1642–1643". Journal of British Studies. 9 (2). JSTOR 175155.
Larkin, James F.; Hughes, Paul L., eds. (1973). Stuart Royal Proclamations: Volume I. Clarendon Press.
Lynch, Michael (1992). Scotland: a New History. Pimlico Publishing. ISBN 978-0712698931.
Lockyer, R (1998). James VI and I. London: Addison Wesley Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-27962-9.
MacIntosh, Gillian (2007). Scottish Parliament under Charles II, 1660–1685. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0748624577.
McDonald, Alan (1998). The Jacobean Kirk, 1567–1625: Sovereignty, Polity and Liturgy. Routledge. ISBN 978-1859283738.
Mitchison, Rosalind (2002). A History of Scotland. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415278805.
Morrill, John (1990). Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution. Longman. ISBN 978-0582016750.
Munck, Thomas (2005). Seventeenth-Century Europe: State, Conflict and Social Order in Europe 1598–1700. Palgrave. ISBN 978-1403936196.
Richards, E (2004). OBritannia's Children: Emigration from England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland since 1600. Continuum. ISBN 1852854413.
Riley, PJW (1969). "The Union of 1707 as an Episode in English Politics". The English Historical Review. 84 (332). JSTOR 562482.
Robertson, Barry (2014). Royalists at War in Scotland and Ireland, 1638–1650. Routledge. ISBN 978-1317061069.
Smout, T. C. “The Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707. I. The Economic Background.” Economic History Review vol. 16, no. 3, 1964, pp. 455–467. online
Stephen, Jeffrey (January 2010). "Scottish Nationalism and Stuart Unionism". Journal of British Studies. 49 (1, Scottish Special).
Watt, Douglas (2007). The Price of Scotland: Darien, Union and the wealth of nations. Luath Press. ISBN 978-1906307097.
Whatley, C (2001). Bought and sold for English Gold? Explaining the Union of 1707. East Linton: Tuckwell Press. ISBN 978-1-86232-140-3.
Whatley, C (2006). The Scots and the Union. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-1685-5.
Whatley, Christopher (1989). "Economic Causes and Consequences of the Union of 1707: A Survey". Scottish Historical Review. 68 (186).
Other books
Defoe, Daniel. A tour thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain, 1724–27
Defoe, Daniel. The Letters of Daniel Defoe, GH Healey editor. Oxford: 1955.
Fletcher, Andrew (Saltoun). An Account of a Conversation
Lockhart, George, "The Lockhart Papers", 1702–1728
External links
The full text of Act of Union 1707 at Wikisource
Union with England Act and Union with Scotland Act – Full original text
Treaty of Union and the Darien Experiment, University of Guelph, McLaughlin Library, Library and Archives Canada
Text of the Union with Scotland Act 1706 as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk.
Text of the Union with England Act 1707 as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk.
Union with England Act 1707, from Records of the Parliaments of Scotland
Image of original act from the Parliamentary Archives website
Links to related articles
Categories: 1706 in England1706 in law1707 in law1707 in Great Britain1707 in ScotlandActs of the Parliament of EnglandActs of the Parliament of England still in forceActs of the Parliament of ScotlandUnionism in the United KingdomConstitutional laws of the United KingdomEngland–Scotland relationsPolitical history of Great BritainNational unificationsPolitical chartersUnionism in ScotlandTreaties of EnglandTreaties of Scotland1707 in British law1706 in politics
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[RIP Syndrome]

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[RIP Syndrome]

[RIP Syndrome]

yn Rand (oik. Ayn Rand O'Connor, alk. Alisa Zinovjevna Rozenbaum (ven. Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум); 2. helmikuuta (J: 20. tammikuuta) 1905 Pietari, Venäjän keisarikunta – 6. maaliskuuta 1982 New York City, New York) oli amerikanvenäläinen kirjailija ja filosofi, jonka perustama oppisuunta objektivismi korostaa objektiivisen todellisuuden, rationaalisen ajattelun, egoistisen etiikan ja kapitalistisen politiikan merkitystä. Ayn Randin kulttuurista perintöä ja hänen objektivismifilosofiaansa vaalii yhdysvaltalainen vuonna 1985 perustettu Ayn Rand Institute.


Sisällysluettelo
1 Lapsuus ja nuoruus
2 Ajatusmaailma ja vaikutteet
3 Teosten filmatisointeja
4 Yksityiselämä
5 Sitaatteja
6 Tuotantoa
6.1 Kaunokirjallisuutta
6.2 Tietokirjallisuutta
6.3 Postuumit teokset
7 Lähteet
8 Kirjallisuutta
9 Aiheesta muualla
Lapsuus ja nuoruus
Ayn Rand syntyi Pietarissa varakkaaseen venäjänjuutalaiseen apteekkariperheeseen. Hänen perhettään vainottiin, ja perhe muutti Pietarista Krimille neljäksi vuodeksi Randin ollessa 12-vuotias. Paluun jälkeen perhe näki nälkää, ja isän omistama apteekki kansallistettiin valtiolle.

Rand valmistui Petrogradin valtionyliopistosta ja pääsi turistiviisumilla vierailemaan sukulaistensa luokse Yhdysvaltoihin. Kun hän vuonna 1926 muutti pysyvästi Yhdysvaltoihin, hän muutti nimensä Ayn Randiksi. Randin mukaan Ayn-nimi on osittain keksitty ja osittain oikea, perustuen suomalaiseen Aina-etunimeen, jonka venäläinen kirjoitusasu on "Aйнa". Ayn kertoi itse ääntävänsä nimensä "ain".[1]

Rand on sanonut, että oli vain kuullut nimen eikä hän ollut lukenut yhtään kirjailijan teosta.lähde?

Ajatusmaailma ja vaikutteet

Randin ensimmäisen teoksen kansi. Pola Negriä käsittelevä monografia julkaistiin venäjäksi vuonna 1925.
Pääartikkeli: Objektivismi (Rand)
Randin romaanien keskiössä on ”randilaisen sankarin” arkkityyppi, henkilö, jonka kyvyt ja riippumattomuus aiheuttavat konfliktin enemmistön kanssa mutta joka silti sitkeästi pitää kiinni arvoistaan. Tämä toistaa Randin kokemusta, kun hän jo pikkulapsena päätti aina pysyä ihanteissaan vastoin vastustamansa kommunismin pyrkimystä määrätä ihmiskohtaloista.

Rand uskoi, että ihmisen tulee valita arvonsa ja toimintansa järkeen nojautuen, että ihmisellä on oikeus olla olemassa itsensä vuoksi, vailla pakkoa uhrata itsensä toisille tai oikeutta uhrata toisia itsensä vuoksi, ja että kenelläkään ei ole oikeutta ottaa arvoja toisista (hyväksykäyttää toisia) fyysisen voiman avulla.[2][3]

Rand kirjoitti Neuvostoliiton totalitarismista ja piti sosialismia ja kansallissosialismia epäinhimillisinä järjestelminä.[4][5] Hän sai vähitellen miljoonia lukijoita ympäri maailmaa. Muun muassa Yhdysvaltain keskuspankin entinen pääjohtaja Alan Greenspan on tunnustautunut objektivistiksi.[6] Myös suomalainen pankkiiri Björn Wahlroos on nimennyt Randin itselleen tärkeäksi ajattelijaksi.[7]

Vuonna 1940 Ayn Rand tuki suomalaisten talvisotaa lahjoittamalla 25 dollaria Fighting Funds For Finland -keräykseen.[8][9]

Monien mielestä Rand oli libertaristi, mutta Rand itse haukkui libertaristeja ”hirviömäisiksi, kuvottaviksi ihmisiksi, jotka plagioivat ideoitani omiin tarkoituksiinsa”. Libertaaripuoluetta Rand piti suurena vitsinä. Erityisesti anarkisteja Rand vihasi: hän käytti heistä nimitystä ”roskaväki” (scum).[10]

Yksi Randin keskeisistä ajatuksista on omistuksen koskemattomuus: yksilön valta omaan kehoonsa ja omaisuuteensa. Rand asettaa tälle kuitenkin joitakin rajoitteita, joista Ayn Rand -instituutin perustaja Leonard Peikoff käyttää nimitystä ”omistusoikeuden kontekstuaalisuus”.[11] Rand esittää, että omistusoikeudet voivat olla olemassa vain riittävän sivistyksen piirissä. Hänen mukaansa eurooppalaisilla oli aikoinaan täysi oikeus ottaa Pohjois-Amerikka itselleen intiaaneilta, koska Amerikan alkuperäiskansa eli alkeellisessa heimokulttuurissa eikä heillä ollut riittävää sivistystä omistusoikeuden käsitteen ymmärtämiseen eikä kunnioittamiseen.[12]

Randin ajatusmaailmaan vaikuttivat eniten Aristoteles ja valistusajattelijat. Silti Rand piti Immanuel Kantin filosofiaa pahana. Friedrich Nietzschen filosofiaa hän vihasi, mutta arvosti tätä kirjailijana.

Teosten filmatisointeja
Nuoruuden kokemukset vaikuttivat Randin myöhempään kommunisminvastaisuuteen, mikä ilmenee hänen 1936 julkaistussa omaelämäkerrallisessa ensiromaanissaan We the Living.lähde? Romaani filmatisoitiin 1940-luvulla Italiassa nimellä Noi vivi muodissa olleen neorealismin hengessä. Pari vuotta myöhemmin (1938) julkaistua dystopiaromaania Anthem ei ole sovitettu elokuvaksi. King Vidor ohjasi Randin romaanista The Fountainhead (1943) vuonna 1949 Randin oman käsikirjoituksen pohjalta Hollywood-elokuvaversio Pilvenpiirtäjä. Rand kirjoitti käsikirjoituksia myös muutamiin muihin elokuviin ja teatterinäytelmiin. Kirjasta Kun maailma järkkyi tehty elokuva Kun maailma järkkyi (2011), jonka on ohjannut Paul Johansson.

Yksityiselämä

Ayn Randin hauta Kensicon hautausmaalla Valhallassa New Yorkin osavaltiossa.
Rand oli naimisissa taiteilija Frank O'Connorin kanssa. Heillä ei ollut lapsia.

Rand oli tupakoitsija, ja hän sairastui keuhkosyöpään.[13] Rand käytti myös amfetamiinia 30 vuoden ajan vuodesta 1942 aina 1970-luvulle.[14]

Sitaatteja
Question book-4.svg
Tähän artikkeliin tai osioon ei ole merkitty lähteitä, joten tiedot kannattaa tarkistaa muista tietolähteistä.
Voit lisätä artikkeliin tarkistettavissa olevia lähteitä ja merkitä ne ohjeen mukaan.
”Älä ikinä sano, että halu tehdä hyvää voiman avulla on hyvä aikomus. Vallanhalu ja typeryys eivät ole ikinä hyviä aikomuksia.”
”Luovalla ihmisellä on halu saavuttaa, ei päihittää toisia.”
”Pahuutta ei voi tapahtua ilman uhrin suostumusta.”
”Miksi he aina opettavat meille että on helppoa ja pahaa tehdä mitä haluaa ja että tarvitsemme itsekuria hallitaksemme itsemme? Se on vaikeinta maailmassa – tehdä mitä haluamme. Ja siihen vaaditaan suurinta rohkeutta.”
”Opi arvostamaan itseäsi, eli taistele onnesi puolesta.”
”Pahinta syyllisyyttä on hyväksyä ansaitsematon syyllisyys.”
”Onnellisuus syntyy kun ihminen saavuttaa omat arvonsa.”
Tuotantoa
Kaunokirjallisuutta
Night of January 16th (1934)
We The Living (1936)
Hymni (Anthem, 1938), suom. Jyrki Iivonen, julkaistu Portti-lehdessä 16 (1997) : 3, s. 84–110
The Fountainhead (1943)
Kun maailma järkkyi (Atlas Shrugged, 1957), Suom. Jyrki Iivonen, Minerva 2017
Tietokirjallisuutta
For the New Intellectual (1961)
The Virtue of Selfishness (Nathaniel Brandenin kanssa) (1964)
Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal (Nathaniel Brandenin, Alan Greenspanin ja Robert Hessenin kanssa) (1966)
Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology (1967)
The Romantic Manifesto (1969)
The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution (1971)
Philosophy: Who Needs It (1982)
Postuumit teokset
The Early Ayn Rand (Leonard Peikoffin julkaisema. Kirjassa on myös hänen kommenttinsa) (1984)
The Voice of Reason: Essays in Objectivist Thought (Leonard Peikoffin julkaisema; Leonard Peikoffin ja Peter Schwartzin novelleja) (1989)
Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology toinen painos (Harry Binswangerin julkaisema; Leonard Peikoffilta lisämateriaalia) (1990)
Letters of Ayn Rand (Michael S. Berlinerin julkaisema) (1995)
Journals of Ayn Rand (David Harrimanin julkaisema) (1997)
Ayn Rand's Marginalia : Her Critical Comments on the Writings of over Twenty Authors (Robert Mayhewin julkaisema) (1998)
The Ayn Rand Column: Written for the Los Angeles Times (Peter Schwartzin julkaisema) (1998)
Russian Writings on Hollywood (Michael S. Berlinerin julkaisema) (1999)
Return of the Primitive: The Anti-Industrial Revolution (laajennettu painos kirjasta The New Left – Peter Schwartzin julkaisema sekä hänen novellejaan lisätty) (1999)
The Art of Fiction (Tore Boeckmannin julkaisema) (2000)
The Art of Nonfiction (Robert Mayhewin julkaisema) (2001)
The Objectivism Research CD-ROM (kokoelma useimmista Randin töistä CD:llä) (2001)
Three Plays (2005)
Ayn Rand Answers (2005)

[RIP Syndrome]

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[RIP Syndrome]

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[RIP Syndrome]

WATCH OUT MAD uhh runt's gon stab ye

[RIP Syndrome]

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[RIP Syndrome]

anyway

[RIP Syndrome]

teh time has vcome...

[RIP Syndrome]

for our penultimate performance

[RIP Syndrome]

the one that shall describe and ascribe and uhh scribe the remaining notions of what a RIP PPPP thread ought to be.,m,...

[RIP Syndrome]

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[RIP Syndrome]

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[RIP Syndrome]

[RIP Syndrome]

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[RIP Syndrome]

Page semi-protecte
Easter
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
This article is about the Christian and cultural festival. For other uses, see Easter (disambiguation).
Easter
Resurrection (24).jpg
Icon of the Resurrection depicting Christ having destroyed the gates of Hades and removing Adam and Eve from the grave. Christ is flanked by saints, and Satan is depicted as an old man bound and chained. (See Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art.)
Type Christian, cultural
Significance Celebrates the resurrection of Jesus
Celebrations Church services, festive family meals, Easter egg decoration, and gift-giving
Observances Prayer, all-night vigil, sunrise service
Date Determined by the Computus
2020 date
Ap
April 19 (Eastern)
2021 date
April 4[1
May 2[2] (Eastern)
2022 date
April 17 (Western)
April 24 (Eastern)
2023 da
April 9 (Western)
April 16 (Eastern)
Related to Passover, Septuagesima, Sexagesima, Quinquagesima, Shrove Tuesday, Ash Wednesday, Clean Monday, Lent, Great Lent, Palm Sunday, Holy Week, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday which lead up to Easter; and Divine Mercy Sunday, Ascension, Pentecost, Trinity Sunday, Corpus Christi and Feast of the Sacred Heart which follow it.
Easter,[nb 1] also called Pascha (Aramaic, Greek, Latin)[nb 2] or Resurrection Sunday,[nb 3] is a Christian festival and holiday commemorating the resurrection of Jesus from the deady c. 30 AD.[7][8] It is the culmination of the Passion of Jesus, preceded by Lent (or Great Lent), a 40-day period of fasting, prayer, and penance.

Most Christians refer to the week before Easter as "Holy Week", which contains the days of the Easter Triduum, including Maundy Thursday, commemorating the Maundy and Last Supper,[9][10] as well as Good Friday, commemorating the crucifixion and death of Jesus.[11] In Western Christianity, Eastertide, or the Easter Season, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts seven weeks, ending with the coming of the 50th day, Pentecost Sunday. In Eastern Christianity, thehal season begins on Pascha and ends with the coming of the 40th day, pension.

Easter and its related holidays are moveable feasts, not falling on a fixed date in the Gregorian or Julian calendars which follow only the cycle of the Sun; its date is calculated based on a lunisolar calendar similar to the Hebrew calendar. The First Council of Nicaea (325) established two rules, independence of the Hebrew calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the only rules for Easter explicitly laidif calculated on the basisr the March equinox.[13]

Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover (Hebrew: פֶּסַח pesach, Aramaic: פָּסחָא pascha) by its origin (according to the synoptic Gospels, both the crucifixion and the resurrection took place during the Passover)[14][15] and by much of its symbolism, as well as by its position in the calendar. In most European languages the feast is called by thr.[16] Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include sunrise services, exclaiming the Pasche Easter Bunny and egg hunting.[24][25][26][27][28] There are also various traditional Easter foods that vary regionally.


Contents
1 Et
2 Theological signi
3Christianity
4 Date
4.1 Comp
6.1 Western
6.2 Eastern
6.3 Non-observin
7 Easter
7.1 Easter
7.2 Easter Bu
8 See also
9 Footnotes
10 References
11 no
11.3 Calculatin
Et
Main articles: Ēostre and Names of Easter
The modern English term Easter, cognate with modern Dutch ooster and German Ostern, developed from an Old English word that usually appears in the forum, -on, or -an; but also as Ēastru, -o; and Ēastre or Ēostre.[nb 4] Bede provides the only documentary source for the etymology of the word, in his The Reckoning of Time. He wrote that Ēosturmōnaþ (Old English 'Month of Ēostre', translated in Bede's time as "Paschal month") was an English month, corresponding to April, which he says "was once called after a goddess of theirs named Ēostre, in whose honour feasts were celebrated in that month".[29]

In Latin and Greek, the Christian celebration was, and still is, called Pascha (Greek: Πάσχα), a word derived from Aramaic פסחא (Paskha), cognate to Hebrew פֶּסַח (Pesach). The word originally denoted the Jewish festival known in English as Passover, commemorating the Jewish Exodus from slavery in Egypt.[30][31] As early as the 50s of the 1st century, Paul the Apostle, writing from Ephesus to the Christians in Corinth,[32] applied the term to Christ, and it is unlikely that the Ephesian and Corinthian Christians were the first to hear Exodus 12 interpreted as speaking about the death of Jesus, not just about the Jewish Passover ritual.[33] In most languages, Germanic languages such as English being exceptions, the feast is known by names derived from Greek and Latin Pascha.[4][34] Pascha is also a name by which Jesus himself is remembered in the Orthodox Church, especially in connection with his resurrection and with the season of its celebration.[35]

Theological significance

One of the earliest known depictions of the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus (Rabbula Gospel illuminated manuscript, 6th century)
The resurrection of Jesus, which Easter celebrates, is one of the chief tenets of the Christian faith.[36] The resurrection established Jesus as the Son of God[37] and is cited as proof that God will righteously judge the world.[38][39] For those who trust in Jesus's death and resurrection, "death is swallowed up in victory."[40] Any person who chooses to follow Jesus receives "a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead".[41] Through faith in the working of God those who follow Jesus are spiritually resurrected with him so that they may walk in a new way of life and receive eternal salvation, being physically resurrected to dwell in the Kingdom of Heaven.[39][42][43]

Easter is linked to Passover and the Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper, sufferings, and crucifixion of Jesus that preceded the resurrection.[34] According to the three Synoptic Gospels, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as in the upper room during the Last Supper he prepared himself and his disciples for his death.[34] He identified the bread and cup of wine as his body, soon to be sacrificed, and his blood, soon to be shed. Paul states, "Get rid of the old yeast that you may be a new batch without yeast—as you really are. For Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed";[44] this refers to the Passover requirement to have no yeast in the house and to the allegory of Jesus as the Paschal lamb.[45]

Early Christianity

The Last Supper celebrated by Jesus and his disciples. The early Christians, too, would have celebrated this meal to commemorate Jesus's death and subsequent resurrection.
The first Christians, Jewish and Gentile, were certainly aware of the Hebrew calendar.[nb 5] Jewish Christians, the first to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus, timed the observance in relation to Passover.[46] Direct evidence for a more fully formed Christian festival of Pascha (Easter) begins to appear in the mid-2nd century. Perhaps the earliest extant primary source referring to Easter is a mid-2nd-century Paschal homily attributed to Melito of Sardis, which characterizes the celebration as a well-established one.[47] Evidence for another kind of annually recurring Christian festival, those commemorating the martyrs, began to appear at about the same time as the above homily.[48]

While martyrs' days (usually the individual dates of martyrdom) were celebrated on fixed dates in the local solar calendar, the date of Easter was fixed by means of the local Jewish[49] lunisolar calendar. This is consistent with the celebration of Easter having entered Christianity during its earliest, Jewish, period, but does not leave the question free of doubt.[50]

The ecclesiastical historian Socrates Scholasticus attributes the observance of Easter by the church to the perpetuation of its custom, "just as many other customs have been established", stating that neither Jesus nor his Apostles enjoined the keeping of this or any other festival. Although he describes the details of the Easter celebration as deriving from local custom, he insists the feast itself is universally observed.[51]

Date

A stained-glass window depicting the Passover Lamb, a concept integral to the foundation of Easter[34][52]
Easter and the holidays that are related to it are moveable feasts, in that they do not fall on a fixed date in the Gregorian or Julian calendars (both of which follow the cycle of the sun and the seasons). Instead, the date for Easter is determined on a lunisolar calendar similar to the Hebrew calendar. The First Council of Nicaea (325) established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the only rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the Council. No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice, a process that took centuries and generated a number of controversies. (See also Computus and Reform of the date of Easter.) In particular, the Council did not decree that Easter must fall on Sunday. This was already the practice almost everywhere.[53][incomplete short citation]

In Western Christianity, using the Gregorian calendar, Easter always falls on a Sunday between 22 March and 25 April,[54] within about seven days after the astronomical full moon.[55] The following day, Easter Monday, is a legal holiday in many countries with predominantly Christian traditions.[56]

Eastern Christianity bases its calculations on the Julian Calendar. Because of the thirteen-day difference between the calendars between 1900 and 2099, 21 March corresponds, during the 21st century, to 3 April in the Gregorian Calendar. Easter therefore varies between 4 April and 8 May in the Gregorian calendar (the Julian calendar is no longer used as the civil calendar of the countries where Eastern Christian traditions predominate). Also, because the Julian "full moon" is always several days after the astronomical full moon, the eastern Easter is often later, relative to the visible Moon's phases, than western Easter.[citation needed]

Among the Oriental Orthodox some churches have changed from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar and the date for Easter as for other fixed and moveable feasts is the same as in the Western church.[57]

Computations
Main article: Computus
In 725, Bede succinctly wrote, "The Sunday following the full Moon which falls on or after the equinox will give the lawful Easter."[58] However, this does not precisely reflect the ecclesiastical rules. The full moon referred to (called the Paschal full moon) is not an astronomical full moon, but the 14th day of a lunar month. Another difference is that the astronomical equinox is a natural astronomical phenomenon, which can fall on 19, 20 or 21 March,[59] while the ecclesiastical date is fixed by convention on 21 March.[60]

In applying the ecclesiastical rules, Christian churches use 21 March as the starting point in determining the date of Easter, from which they find the next full moon, etc. The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches continue to use the Julian calendar. Their starting point in determining the date of Orthodox Easter is also 21 March but according to the Julian reckoning, which in the current century corresponds to 3 April in the Gregorian calendar.[citation needed]

In addition, the lunar tables of the Julian calendar are four days (sometimes five days) behind those of the Gregorian calendar. The 14th day of the lunar month according to the Gregorian system is figured as the ninth or tenth day according to the Julian. The result of this combination of solar and lunar discrepancies is divergence in the date of Easter in most years (see table).[citation needed]

Easter is determined on the basis of lunisolar cycles. The lunar year consists of 30-day and 29-day lunar months, generally alternating, with an embolismic month added periodically to bring the lunar cycle into line with the solar cycle. In each solar year (1 January to 31 December inclusive), the lunar month beginning with an ecclesiastical new moon falling in the 29-day period from 8 March to 5 April inclusive is designated as the paschal lunar month for that year.[61]

Easter is the third Sunday in the paschal lunar month, or, in other words, the Sunday after the paschal lunar month's 14th day. The 14th of the paschal lunar month is designated by convention as the Paschal full moon, although the 14th of the lunar month may differ from the date of the astronomical full moon by up to two days.[61] Since the ecclesiastical new moon falls on a date from 8 March to 5 April inclusive, the paschal full moon (the 14th of that lunar month) must fall on a date from 21 March to 18 April inclusive.[citation needed]

The Gregorian calculation of Easter was based on a method devised by the Calabrian doctor Aloysius Lilius (or Lilio) for adjusting the epacts of the Moon,[62] and has been adopted by almost all Western Christians and by Western countries which celebrate national holidays at Easter. For the British Empire and colonies, a determination of the date of Easter Sunday using Golden Numbers and Sunday letters was defined by the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 with its Annexe. This was designed to match exactly the Gregorian calculation.[citation needed]

Controversies over the date
Main article: Easter controversy

A five-part Russian Orthodox icon depicting the Easter story.
Eastern Orthodox Christians use a different computation for the date of Easter than the Western churches.
The precise date of Easter has at times been a matter of contention. By the later 2nd century, it was widely accepted that the celebration of the holiday was a practice of the disciples and an undisputed tradition. The Quartodeciman controversy, the first of several Easter controversies, arose concerning the date on which the holiday should be celebrated.[citation needed]

The term "Quartodeciman" refers to the practice of celebrating Easter on Nisan 14 of the Hebrew calendar, "the LORD's passover" (Leviticus 23:5). According to the church historian Eusebius, the Quartodeciman Polycarp (bishop of Smyrna, by tradition a disciple of John the Apostle) debated the question with Anicetus (bishop of Rome). The Roman province of Asia was Quartodeciman, while the Roman and Alexandrian churches continued the fast until the Sunday following (the Sunday of Unleavened Bread), wishing to associate Easter with Sunday. Neither Polycarp nor Anicetus persuaded the other, but they did not consider the matter schismatic either, parting in peace and leaving the question unsettled.[citation needed]

Controversy arose when Victor, bishop of Rome a generation after Anicetus, attempted to excommunicate Polycrates of Ephesus and all other bishops of Asia for their Quartodecimanism. According to Eusebius, a number of synods were convened to deal with the controversy, which he regarded as all ruling in support of Easter on Sunday.[63] Polycrates (circa 190), however, wrote to Victor defending the antiquity of Asian Quartodecimanism. Victor's attempted excommunication was apparently rescinded, and the two sides reconciled upon the intervention of bishop Irenaeus and others, who reminded Victor of the tolerant precedent of Anicetus.[citation needed]

Quartodecimanism seems to have lingered into the 4th century, when Socrates of Constantinople recorded that some Quartodecimans were deprived of their churches by John Chrysostom[64] and that some were harassed by Nestorius.[65]

It is not known how long the Nisan 14 practice continued. But both those who followed the Nisan 14 custom, and those who set Easter to the following Sunday had in common the custom of consulting their Jewish neighbors to learn when the month of Nisan would fall, and setting their festival accordingly. By the later 3rd century, however, some Christians began to express dissatisfaction with the custom of relying on the Jewish community to determine the date of Easter. The chief complaint was that the Jewish communities sometimes erred in setting Passover to fall before the Northern Hemisphere spring equinox.[66][67] The Sardica paschal table[68] confirms these complaints, for it indicates that the Jews of some eastern Mediterranean city (possibly Antioch) fixed Nisan 14 on dates well before the spring equinox on multiple occasions.[69]

Because of this dissatisfaction with reliance on the Jewish calendar, some Christians began to experiment with independent computations.[nb 6] Others, however, believed that the customary practice of consulting Jews should continue, even if the Jewish computations were in error.[citation needed]

First Council of Nicaea (325 AD)
Main article: First Council of Nicaea
This controversy between those who advocated independent computations, and those who wished to continue the custom of relying on the Jewish calendar, was formally resolved by the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which endorsed changing to an independent computation by the Christian community in order to celebrate in common. This effectively required the abandonment of the old custom of consulting the Jewish community in those places where it was still used. Epiphanius of Salamis wrote in the mid-4th century:

the emperor ... convened a council of 318 bishops ... in the city of Nicea ... They passed certain ecclesiastical canons at the council besides, and at the same time decreed in regard to the Passover that there must be one unanimous concord on the celebration of God's holy and supremely excellent day. For it was variously observed by people[72]

That the older custom (called "protopaschite" by historians) did not at once die out, but persisted for a time, is indicated by the existence of canons[73] and sermons[74] against it.

Dionysius Exiguus, and others following him, maintained that the 318 Bishops assembled at the Nicene Council had specified a particular method of determining the date of Easter; subsequent scholarship has refuted this tradition.[75] In any case, in the years following the council, the computational system that was worked out by the church of Alexandria came to be normative. It took a while for the Alexandrian rules to be adopted throughout Christian Europe, however. The 8-year cycle originally employed was replaced by (or by the time of) Augustalis's treatise on the measurement of Easter, after which Rome used his 84-year lunisolar calendar cycle until 457. It then switched to an adaptation by Victorius of the Alexandrian rules.[76][77]

Because this Victorian cycle differed from the Alexandrian cycle in the dates of some of the Paschal Full Moons, and because it tried to respect the Roman custom of fixing Easter to the Sunday in the week of the 16th to the 22nd of the lunar month (rather than the 15th to the 21st as at Alexandria), by providing alternative "Latin" and "Greek" dates in some years, occasional differences in the date of Easter as fixed by Alexandrian rules continued.[76][77] The Alexandrian rules were adopted in the West following the tables of Dionysius Exiguus in 525. From this time, therefore, all discrepancies between Alexandria and Rome as to the correct date for Easter cease, as both churches were using identical tables.[citation needed]

Early Christians in Britain and Ireland also used an 84-year cycle. From the 5th century onward this cycle set its equinox to 25 March and fixed Easter to the Sunday falling in the 14th to the 20th of the lunar month inclusive.[78][79] This 84-year cycle was replaced by the Alexandrian method in the course of the 7th and 8th centuries. Churches in western continental Europe used a late Roman method until the late 8th century during the reign of Charlemagne, when they finally adopted the Alexandrian method. Since 1582, when the Catholic Church adopted the Gregorian calendar while the Eastern Orthodox and most Oriental Orthodox Churches retained the Julian calendar, the date on which Easter is celebrated has again differed.[citation needed]

The Greek island of Syros, whose population is divided almost equally between Catholics and Orthodox, is one of the few places where the two Churches share a common date for Easter, with the Catholics accepting the Orthodox date—a practice helping considerably in maintaining good relations between the two communities.[80]

Reform of the date
See also: Reform of the date of Easter

The congregation lighting their candles from the new flame, just as the priest has retrieved it from the altar – note that the picture is flash-illuminated; all electric lighting is off, and only the oil lamps in front of the Iconostasis remain lit. (St. George Greek Orthodox Church, Adelaide).r the second Saturday in April. Despite having some support, proposals to reform the date have not been implemented.[81] An Orthodox congress of Eastern Orthodox bishops, which included representatives mostly from the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Serbian Patriarch, met in Constantinople in 1923, where the bishops agreed to the Revised Julian calendar.[82]

The original form of this calendar would have determined Easter using precise astronomical calculations based on the meridian of Jerusalem.[83][84] However, all the Eastern Orthodox countries that subsequently adopted the Revised Julian calendar adopted only that part of the revised calendar that applied to festivals falling on fixed dates in the Julian calendar. The revised Easter computation that had been part of the original 1923 agreement was never permanently implemented in any Orthodox diocese.[82]

In the United Kingdom, the Easter Act 1928 set out legislation to change the date of Easter to be the first Sunday after the second Saturday in April (or, in other words, the Sunday in the period from 9 to 15 April). However, the legislation has not been implemented, although it remains on the Statute book and could be implemented subject to approval by the various Christian churches.[85]

At a summit in Aleppo, Syria, in 1997, the World Council of Churches (WCC) proposed a reform in the calculation of Easter which would have replaced the present divergent practices of calculating Easter with modern scientific knowledge taking into account actual astronomical instances of the spring equinox and full moon based on the meridian of Jerusalem, while also following the Council of Nicea position of Easter being on the Sunday following the full moon.[86] The cunt the calendar issues and eliminated the difference in date between the Eastern and Western churches. The reform was proposed for implementation starting in 2001, but it was not ultimately adopted by any member body.[citation needed]

In January 2016, Christian churches again considered agreeing on a common, universal date for Easter, while also simplifying the calculation of that date, with either the second or third Sunday in April being popular choices.[87]

Table of the dates of Easter
See also: Western vs Eastern dates, in a wider timeframe (2001–2041)
The WCC presented comparative data of the relationships:

Table of dates of Easter 2001–2025 (in Gregorian )[88]
Year Full Moon Jewish Passover
2002 28 March 31 March 5 May
2003 16 April 17 April 20 April 27 April
2004 5 April 6 April 11 April
2005 25 March 24 April 27 March 1 May
2006 13 April 16 April 23 April
2007 2 April 3 April 8 April
2008 21 March 20 April 23 March 27 April
2009 9 April 12 Aril 19 April
2010 30 March 4 April
2011 18 April 19 April 24 April
2012 6 April 7 April 8 April 15 April
2013 27 March 26 arch 31 March 5 May
2014 15 April 20 April
2015 4 April 5 April 12 April
2016 23 March 23 April 27 March 1 May
2017 11 April 16 April
2018 31 March 1 April 8 April
2019 20 March 20 April 24 March 21 April 2 April
020 April 9 il 12 April 19 April
2021 28 March 4 April 2 May
2022 16 April 17 April 24 April
2023 6 April 9 April 16 April
2025 March 23 April 31 March 5 May
2025 13 April 20 April
Jewish Passover is on Nisan 15 of its calendar. It commences at sunset ceding the date indicated (as does Easter in many traditions).
Astronomical Easter is the first Sunday after the astronomal full mon after the astronomical March equinox as measured at the meridian of Jerusalem according to tWCC proposal.
Position in the church year
Further information: Liturgical year
Western Christianity

Easter and other named days and day ranges around Lent and Easter in Western Christianity, with the fasting days of Lent numbered
In Western Christianity, Easter is preceded by Lent, a period of fasting and penitence in preparation for Easter, which begins on Ash Wednesday and lasts 40 days (not counting Sundays). The week before Easter, known as Holy Week, is very special in the Christian tradition. The Sunday before Easter is Palm Sunday, with the Wednesday before Easter being known as Spy Wednesday. The last three days before Easter are Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Holy Saturday (sometimes referred to as Silent Saturday).[citation needed]

Palm Sunday, Maundy Thursday and Good Friday respectively commemorate Jesus's entry in Jerusalem, the Last Supper and the Crucifixion. Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday are sometimes referred to as the Easter Triduum (Latin for "Three Days"). Many churches begin celebrating Easter late in the evening of Holy Saturday at a service called the Easter Vigil.[citation needed]

The week beginning with Easter Sunday is called Easter Week or the OctaE, and each day is prefaced with "Easter", e.g. Easter Monday (a public holiday in many countries), Easter Tuesday (a much less widespread public holiday), etc. Easter Saturday is therefore the Saturday after Easter Sunday. The day before Easter is properly called Holy S. Eastertide, or Paschaltide, the season of Easter, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts until the day of Pentecost, seven weeks lar.[
Eastern Christianity
In Eastern Christianity, the spiritual preparation for Easter begins with Great Lent, which starts on Clean Monday and lasts for 40 continuous days (including Sundays). The last week of Great Lent (following the fifth Sunday of Great Lent) is called Palm Week, and ends with Lazarus Saturday. The Vespers which begins Lazarus Saturday officially brings Great Lent to a close, although the fast continues through the following week. After Lazarus Saturday mes Palm Sunday, Holy Week, and finally Easter itself, and the fast is broken immediately after the Paschal Divine Liturg

The Paschal Vigil begins with the Midnight Office, which is the last service of the Lenten Triodion and is timed so that it ends a little before midnight on Holy Saturday night. At the stroke of midnight the Paschal celebration itself begins, consisting of Paschal Matins, Paschal Hours, and Paschal Divine Liturgy.[89] Placing the Paschal Divasts" in the liturgical ye

The liturgical season from Easter to the Sunday of All Saints (the Sunday after Pentecost) is known as the Pentecostarion (the "50 days"). The week which begins on Easter Sunday is called Bright Week, during which there is no fasting, even on Wednesday and Friday. The Afterfeast of Easter lasts 39 days, with its Apodosis (leave-taking) on the day before the Feast of the Ascension. Pentecost Sunday is the 50th day from Easter (counted inclusively).[90]

Liturgical observance

The Resurrection of Jesus Christ, fresco by Piero della Francesca, 1463
Western Christianity
The Easter festival is kept in many different ways among Western Christians. The traditional, liturgical observation of Easter, as practised among Roman Catholics, Lutherans,[91] and some Anglicans begins on the night of Holy Saturday with the Easter Vigil which follows an ancient liturgy involving symbols of light, candles and water and numerous readings form the Old and New Testament.[92]

Services continue on Easter Sunday and in a number of countries on Easter Monday. In parishes of the Moravian Church, as well as some other denominations such as the Methodist Churches, there is a n of Easter Sunrise Services[93] often starting in cemeteries[94] in remembrance of the biblical narrative in the Gospels, or other places in the open where the sunrise is visible.[95]

Easter services typically begin with the Paschal greeting: Christ is risen". The response is is risen indeed! Alleluliah." [96]

Eastern Christianity

Icon of the Resurrection by an unknown 17th-century Bulgarian artist
Eastern Catholics and Byzantine Rite Lutherans have a similar emphasis on Easter in their calendars, and many of their liturgical customs are very similar.[97]

Preparation for Easter begins with the season of Great Lent, which begins on Clean Monday.[98] While the end of Lent is Lazarus Saturday, fasting does not end until Easter Sunday.[99] The Orthodox service begins late Saturday evening, observing the Jewish tradition that evening is the start of liturgical holy days.[99]


Boris Kustodiev's Pascha Greetings (1912) shows traditional Russian khrniehanging a triple kiss), with such foods as red eggs, kulich and paskha in the background.
The church is darkened, then the priest lights a candle at midnight, representing the resurrection of Jesus Christ. Altar servers light additional candles, with a procession which moves three times around the church to represent the three days in the tomb.[99] The service continues early into Sunday morning, with a feast to end the fasting. An additional service is held later that day on Easter Sunday.[99]

Non-observing Christian groups
Many Puritans saw traditional feasts of the established Anglican Church, such as All Saints' Day and Easter, as an abomination.[100] The Puritan rejection of Easter traditions was (and is) based partly upon theerpretation of 2 Corinthians 6:14–16 and partly upon a more general belief that, if a religous practicd]

Members of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), as part of their historic testimony against times and seasons, do not celebrate or observe Easter or any traditional feast days of the established Church, believing instead that "every day is the Lord's day",[101] and that elevation of one day above others suggests that it is acceptable to do un-Christian acts on other days.[102] During the 17th and 18th centuries, Quakers were persecuted for this non-observance of Holy Days.[103]

Groups such as the Restored Church of God and the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland reject the celebration of Easter, seeing it as originating in a pagan spring festival taken over by the "Roman" Catholic Church.[104][105]

Jehovah's Witnesses maintain a similar view, observing a yearly commemorative service of the Last Supper and the subsequent execution of Christ on the eveningays before Easter Sunday, is also a public holiday in many countries, as well as in 12 U.S. states. Even in states where Good Friday is not a holiday, many financial institutions, stock markets, and public schools are closed. The few banks that are normally open on regular Sundays are closed on Easter.[citation needed]

In the Nordic countries Good Friday, Easter Sunday and Easter Monday are public holidays,[107] and Good Friday and Easter Monday are bank holidays.[108] In Denmark, Iceland and Norway Maundy Thursday is also a public holiday. It is a holiday for most workers, except those operating some shopping malls which keep open for a half-day. Many businesses give their employees almost a week off, called Easter break.[109] Schools are closed between Palm Sunday and Easter Monday. According to a 2014 poll, 6 of 10 Norwegians travel during Easter, often to a countryside cottage; 3 of 10 said their typical Easter included skiing.[110]

In the Netherlands both Easter Sunday and Easter Monday are national holidays. Like first and second Christmas Day, they are both considered Sundays, which results in a first and a second Easter Sunday, after which the week continues to a Tuesday.[111]

In Commonwealth nations Easter Day is rarely a public holiday, as is the case for celebrations which fall on a Sunday. In the United Kingdom both Good Friday and Easter Monday are bank holidays, except for Scotland, where only Good Friday is a bank holiday.[112] In Canada, Easter Monday is a statutory holiday for federal employees. In the Canadian province of Quebec, either Good Friday or Easter Monday are statutory holidays (although most companies give both).

In Australia, because of its location in the southern hemisphere, Easter takes place in autumn. Hence, Australian Easter is associated with harvest time, rather than with the coming of spring as in the northern hemisphere. The religious aspect of Easter remains the same.[113] Good Friday and Easter Monday are public holidays across all states and territories. "Easter Saturday" (the Saturday before Easter Sunday) is a public holiday in every state except Tasmania and Western Australia, while Easter Sunday itself is a public holiday only in New South Wales. Easter Tuesday is additionally a conditional public holiday in Tasmania, varying between award, and was also a public holiday in Victoria until 1994.[114]

In the United States, because Easter falls on a Sunday, which is already a non-working day for federal and state employees, it has not been designated as a federal or state holiday. Easter parades are held in many American cities, involving festive strolling processions.[24]

Easter eggs
Main article: Easter egg
The egg is an ancient symbol of new life and rebirth.[115] In Christianity it became associated with Jesus's crucifixion and resurrection.[116] The custom of the Easter egg originahristians, the Easter egg is a symbol of the empty tomb.[19][20] The oldest tradition is to use dyed chicken eggs, but a modern custom is to substitute decorated chocolate, or plastic eggs filled with candy such as jellybeans; as many people give up sweets as their Lenten sacrifice, individuals enjoy them at Easter after having abstained from them during the preceding forty days of Lent.[119]

Easter eggs are a widely popular symbol of new life in Poland and other Slavic countries' folk traditions. A batik-like decorating process known as pisanka produces intricate, brilliantly-colored eggs. The celebrated House of Fabergé workshops created exquisite jewelled Easter eggs for the Russian Imperial family from 1885 to 1916.[120]


Easter eggs, a symbol of the empty tomb, are a popular cultural symbol of Easter.[18]



Marshmallow rabbits, candy eggs and other treats in an Easter basket



An Easter egg decorated with the Easter Bunny

Manufacturing their first Easter egg in 1875, British chocolate company Cadbury sponsors the annual Easter egg hunt which takes place in over 250 National Trust locations in the United Kingdom.[121][122] On Easter Monday, the President of the United States holds an annual Easter egg roll on the White House lawn for young children.[123]

Easter Bunny
In some traditions the children put out their empty baskets for the Easter bunny to fill while they sleep.They wake to find their baskets filled with candy eggs and other treats.[124][25]

A custom originating in Germany,[124] the Easter Bunny is a popular legendary anthropomorphic Easter gift-giving character analogous to Santa Claus in American culture. Many children around the world follow the tradition of coloring hard-boiled eggs and giving baskets of candy.[25] Historically, foxes, cranes and storks wive.[125]

See also
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Divine Mercy Sunday
Life of Jesus in the New Testament
List of Easter hymns
Movable Eastern Christian Observances
Regina Caeli
Footnotes
Traditional names for the feast in English are "Easter Day", as in the Book of Common Prayer; "Easter Sunday", used by James Ussher (The Whole Works of the Most Rev. James Ussher, Volume 4) and Samuel Pepys (The Diary of Samuel Pepys, Volume 2) and just the word "Easter", as in books printed in 1575, 1584, 1586
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Greek word Pascha is used for the celebration; in English, the analogous word is Pasch.[3][4]
The simple name "Resurrection Sunday" is used particularly by Christian communities in the Middle East.[5][6]
Old English pronunciation: [ˈæːɑstre, ˈeːostre]
Acts 2:1; 12:3; 20:6; 27:9, 1 Cor 16:8
Eusebius reports that Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria, proposed an 8-year Easter cycle, and quotes a letter from Anatolius, Bishop of Laodicea, that refers to a 19-year cycle.[70] An 8-year cycle has been found inscribed on a statue unearthed in Rome in the 17th century, and since dated to the 3rd century.[71]
Selected Christian Observances, 2021, U.S. Naval Observatory Astronomical Applications Department
When is Orthodox Easter?, Calendarpedia
Ferguson, Everett (2009). Baptism in the Early Church: History, Theology, and Liturgy in the First Five Centuries. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 351. ISBN 978-0802827487. Retrieved 23 April 2014. The practices are usually interpreted in terms of baptism at the pasch (Easter), for which compare Tertullian, but the text does not specify this season, only that it was done on Sunday, and the instructions may apply to whenever the baptism was to be performed.
Norman Davies (1998). Europe: A History. HarperCollins. p. 201. ISBN 978-0060974688. In most European languages Easter is called by some variant of the late Latin word Pascha, which in turn derives from the Hebrew pesach, meaning passover.
Gamman, Andrew; Bindon, Caroline (2014). Stations for Lent and Easter. Kereru Publishing Limited. p. 7. ISBN 978-0473276812. Easter Day, also known as Resurrection Sunday, marks the high point of the Christian year. It is the day that we celebrate the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead.
Boda, Mark J.; Smith, Gordon T. (2006). Repentance in Christian Theology. Liturgical Press. p. 316. ISBN 978-0814651759. Retrieved 19 April 2014. Orthodox, Catholic, and all Reformed churches in the Middle East celebrate Easter according to the Eastern calendar, calling this holy day "Resurrection Sunday," not Easter.
Bernard Trawicky; Ruth Wilhelmical year. It is the oldest and most important Christian feast, celebrating the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. The date of Easter determines the dates of all movable feasts except those of Advent.
Aveni, Anthony (2004). "The Easter/Passover Season: Connecting Time's Broken Circle", The Book of the Year: A Brief History of Our Seasonal Holidays. Oxford University Press. pp. 64–78. ISBN 0-19-517154-3.
Peter C. Bower (2003). The Companion to the Book of Common Worship. Geneva Press. ISBN 978-0664502324. Retrieved 11 April 2009. Maundy Thursday (or le mandé; Thursday of the Mandatum, Latin, commandment). The name is taken from the first few words sung at the ceremony of the washing of the feet, "I give you a new commandment" (John 13:34); also from the commandment of Christ that we should imitate His loving humility in the washing of the feet (John 13:14–17). The term mandatum (maundy), therefore, was applied to the rite of foot-washing on this day.
Gail Ramshaw (2004). Three Day Feast: Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Easter. Augsburg Fortress. ISBN 978-1451408164. Retrieved 11 April 2009. In the liturgies of the Three Days, the service for Maundy Thursday includes both, telling the story of Jesus' last supper and enacting the footwashing.
Leonard Stuart (1909). New century reference library of the world's most important knowledge: complete, thorough, practical, Volume 3. Syndicate Pub. Co. Retrieved 11 April 2009. Holy Week, or Passion Week, the week which immediately precedes Easter, and is devoted especially to commemorating the passion of our Lord. The Days more especially solemnized during it are Holy Wednesday, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday.
"Frequently asked questions about the date of Easter". Archived from the original on 22 April 2011. Retrieved 22 April 2009.
Clarence E. Woodman, "Easter and the Ecclesiastical Calendar" in Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Vol. 17, p.141
"5 April 2007: Mass of the Lord's Supper | BENEDICT XVI". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 1 April 2021.
Reno, R. R. (14 April 2017). "The Profound Connection Between Easter and Passover". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 1 April 2021.
Weiser, Francis X. (1958). Handbook of Christian Feasts and Customs. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. p. 214. ISBN 0-15-138435-5.
Simpson, Jacqueline; Roud, Steve (2003). "clipping the church". Oxford Reference. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780198607663.001.0001. ISBN 9780198607663.
Anne Jordan (2000). Christianity. Nelson Thornes. ISBN 978-0748753208. Retrieved 7 April 2012. Easter eggs are used as a Christian symbol to represent the empty tomb. The outside of the egg looks dead but inside there is new life, which is going to break out. The Easter egg is a reminder that Jesus will rise from His tomb and bring new life. Eastern Orthodox Christians dye boiled eggs red to represent the blood of Christ shed for the sins of the world.
The Guardian, Volume 29. H. Harbaugh. 1878. Retrieved 7 April 2012. Just so, on that first Easter morning, Jesus came to life and walked out of the tomb, and left it, as it were, an empty shell. Just so, too, when the Christian dies, the body is left in the grave, an empty shell, but the soul takes wings and flies away to be with God. Thus you see that though an egg seems to be as dead as a sone, yet it really has life in it; and also it is like Christ's dead body, which was raised to life again. This is the reason we use eggs on Easter. (In olden times they used to color the eggs red, so as to show the kind of death by which Christ died, – a bloody death.)
Gordon Geddes, Jane Griffiths (2002). Christian belief and practice. Heinemann. ISBN 978-0435306915. Retrieved 7 April 2012. Red eggs are given to Orthodox Christians after the Easter Liturgy. They crack their eggs against each other's. The cracking of the eggs symbolizes a wish to break away from the bonds of sin and misery and enter the new life issuing from Christ's resurrection.
Collins, Cynthia (19 April 2014). "Easter Lily Tradition and History". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 April 2014. The Easter Lily is symbolic of the resurrection of Jesus Christ. Churches of all denominations, large and small, are filled with floral arrangements of these white flowers with their trumpet-like shape on Easter morning.
Schell, Stanley (1916). Easter Celebrations. Werner & Company. p. 84. We associate the lily with Easter, as pre-eminently the symbol of the Resurrection.
Luther League Review: 1936–1937. Luther League of America. 1936.
Duchak, Alicia (2002). An A–Z of Modern America. Rutledge. p. 372. ISBN 978-0415187558.
Sifferlin, Alexandra (21 February 2020) [2015]. "What's the Origin of the Easter Bunny?". Time. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
Vicki K. Black (2004). The Church Standard, Volume 74. Church Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-0819225757. Retrieved 7 April 2012. In parts of Europe, the eggs were dyed red and were then cracked together when people exchanged Easter greetings. Many congregations today continue to have Easter egg hunts for the children after the services on Easter Day.
The Church Standard, Volume 74. Walter N. Hering. 1897. Retrieved 7 April 2012. When the custom was carried over into Christian practice the Easter eggs were usually sent to the priests to be blessed and sprinkled with holy water. In later times the coloring and decorating of eggs was introduced, and in a royal roll of the time of Edward I., which is preserved in the Tower of London, there is an entry of 18d. for 400 eggs, to be used for Easter gifts.
Brown, Eleanor Cooper (2010). From Preparation to Passion. ISBN 978-1609577650. Retrieved 7 April 2012. So what preparations do most Christians and non-Christians make? Shopping for new clothing often signifies the belief that Spring has arrived, and it is a time of renewal. Preparations for the Easter Egg Hunts and the Easter Ham for the Sunday dinner are high on the list too.
Wallis, Faith (1999). Bede: The Reckoning of Time. Liverpool University Press. p. 54. ISBN 0853236933.
"History of Easter". The History Channel website. A&E Television Networks. Retrieved 9 March 2013.
Karl Gerlach (1998). The Antenicene Pascha: A Rhetorical History. Peeters Publishers. p. xviii. ISBN 978-9042905702. The second century equivalent of easter and the paschal Triduum was called by both Greek and Latin writers "Pascha (πάσχα)", a Greek transliteration of the Aramaic form of the Hebrew פֶּסַח, the Passover feast of Ex. 12.
1 Corinthians 5:7
Karl Gerlach (1998). The Antenicene Pascha: A Rhetorical History. Peters Publishers. p. 21. ISBN 978-9042905702. For while it is from Ephesus that Paul writes, "Christ our Pascha has been sacrificed for us," Ephesian Christians were not likely the first to hear that Ex 12 did not speak about the rituals of Pesach, but the death of Jesus of Nazareth.
Vicki K. Black (2004). Welcome to the Church Year: An Introduction to the Seasons of the Episcopal Church. Church Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-0819219664. Easter is still called by its older Greek name, Pascha, which means "Passover", and it is this meaning as the Christian Passover-the celebration of Jesus's triumph over death and entrance into resurrected life-that is the heart of Easter in the church. For the early church, Jesus Christ was the fulfillment of the Jewish Passover feast: through Jesus, we have been freed from slavery of sin and granted to the Promised Land of everlasting life.
Orthros of Holy Pascha, Stichera: "Today the sacred Pascha is revealed to us. The new and holy Pascha, the mystical Pascha. The all-venerable Pascha. The Pascha which is Christ the Redeemer. The spotless Pascha. The great Pascha. The Pascha of the faithful. The Pascha which has opened unto us the gates of Paradise. The Pascha which sanctifies all faithful."
1 Corinthians 15:12–20
Torrey, Reuben Archer (1897). "The Resurrection of Christ". Torrey's New Topical Textbook. Retrieved 31 March 2013. (interprets primary source references in this section as applying to the Resurrection)
"The Letter of Paul to the Corinthians". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 10 March 2013.
Romans 1:4
Acts 17:31
"Jesus Christ". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 11 March 2013.
1 Corinthians 15:20–26, 1 Corinthians 15:54–57
1 Peter 1:3
Romans 6:1–9
1 Peter 1:3–4
1 Corinthians 5:7
John 1:29, Revelation 5:6, 1 Peter 1:19, 1 Peter 1:2, and the associated notes and Passion Week table in Barker, Kenneth, ed. (2002). Zondervan NIV Study Bible. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. p. 1520. ISBN 0-310-92955-5.
Karl Gerlach (1998). The Antenicene Pascha: A Rhetorical History. Peeters Publishers. pp. 32, 56. ISBN 978-9042905702.
Landau, Brent. "Why Easter is called Easter, and other little-known facts about the holiday". The Conversation. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
Melito of Sardis. "Homily on the Pascha". Kerux. Northwest Theological Seminary. Archived from the original on 12 March 2007. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
Cheslyn Jones, Geoffrey Wainwright, Edward Yarnold, and Paul Bradshaw, Eds., The Study of Liturgy, Revised Edition, Oxford University Press, New York, 1992, p. 474.
Genung, Charles Harvey (1904). "The Reform of the Calendar". The North American Review. 179 (575): 569–583. JSTOR 25105305.
Cheslyn Jones, Geoffrey Wainwright, Edward Yarnold, and Paul Bradshaw, Eds., The Study of Liturgy, Revised Edition, Oxford University Press, New York, 1992, p. 459:"[Easter] is the only feast of the Christian Year that can plausibly claim to go back to apostolic times ... [It] must derive from a time when Jewish influence was effective ... because it depends on the lunar calendar (every other feast depends on the solar calendar)."
Socrates, Church History, 5.2xt, and kerygma before the Council of Nicaea.
Sozomen, Book 7, Chapter 18
Caroline Wyatt (25 March 2016). "Why can't the date of Easter be fixed". BBC. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
The Date of Easter Archived 14 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Article from United States Naval Observatory (27 March 2007).
"Easter Monday in Hungary in 2021". Office Holidays. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
"The Church in Malankara switched entirely to the Gregorian calendar in 1953, following Encyclical No. 620 from Patriarch Mor Ignatius Aphrem I, dt. December 1952." Calendars of the Syriac Orthodox Church. Retrieved 22 April 2009
Wallis, Faith (1999). Bede: The Reckoning of Time. Liverpool University Press. p. 148. ISBN 0853236933.
Why is Easter so early this year?, EarthSky, Bruce McClure in Astronomy Essentials, 30 March 2018.
Paragraph 7 of Inter gravissimas ISO.org to "the vernal equinox, which was fixed by the fathers of the [first] Nicene Council at XII calends April [21 March]". This definition can be traced at least back to chapters 6 & 59 of Bede's De temporum ratione (725).
Montes, Marcos J. "Calculation of the Ecclesiastical Calendar" Archived 3 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 12 January 2008.
G Moyer (1983), "Aloisius Lilius and the 'Compendium novae rationis restituendi kalendarium'", pp. 171–188 in G.V. Coyne (ed.).
Eusebius, Church History 5.23.
Socrates, Church History, 6.11, at Schaff, Philip (13 July 2005). "Of Severian and Antiochus: their Disagreement from John". Socrates and Sozomenus Ecclchale. In Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, eds., Ante-Nicene Christian Library, Volume 14: The Writings of Methodius, Alexander of Lycopolis, Peter of Alexandria, And Several Fragments, Edinburgh, 1869, p. 326, at Donaldson, Alexander (1 June 2005). "That Up to the Time of the Destruction of Jerusalem, the Jews Rightly Appointed the Fourteenth Day of the First Lunar Month". Gregory Thaumaturgus, Dionysius the Great, Julius Africanus, Anatolius and Minor Writers, Methodius, Arnobius. Calvin College Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 28 March 2009.
MS Verona, Biblioteca Capitolare LX(58) folios 79v–80v.
Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community: A History of the Jewish Calendar Second Century BCE – Tenth Century CE, Oxford, 2001, pp. 124–132.
Eusebius, Church History, 7.20, 7.31.
Allen Brent, Hippolytus and the Roman Church in the Third Century, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1995.
Epiphanius, Adversus Haereses, Heresy 69, 11,1, in Willams, F. (1994). The Panarion of Epiphianus of Salamis Books II and III. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 331.
Apostolic Canon 7: "If any bishop, presbyter, or deacon shall celebrate the holy day of Easter before the vernal equinox with the Jews, let him be deposed." A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series, Volume 14: The Seven Ecumenical Councils, Eerdmans, 1956, p. 594.
St. John Chrysostom, "Against those who keep the first Passover", in Saint John Chrysostom: Discourses against Judaizing Christians, translated by Paul Wd the Origins of the Christian Era. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 223–224. ISBN 978-0-19-954312-0.
Holford-Strevens, Leofranc, and Blackburn, Bonnie (1999). The Oxford Companion to the Year. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 870–875. ISBN 0-19-214231-3.
"Easter: A date with God". The Economist. 20 April 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2011. Only in a handful of places do Easter celebrants alter their own arrangements to take account of their neighbours. Finland's Orthodox Christians mark Easter on the Western date. And on the Greek island of Syros, a Papist stronghold, Catholics and Orthodox alike march to Orthodox time. The spectacular public commemorations, involving flower-strewn funeral biers on Good Friday and fireworks on Saturday night, bring the islanders together, rather than highlighting division.
"Easter (holiday)". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 9 March 2013.
Hieromonk Cassian, A Scientific Examination of the Orthodox Church Calendar, Center for Traditionalist Orthodox Studies, 1998, pp. 51–52, ISBN 0-911165-31-2.
M. Milankovitch, "Das Ende des julianischen Kalenders und der neue Kalender der orientalischen Kirchen", Astronomische Nachrichten 200, 379–384 (1924).
Miriam Nancy Shields, "The new calendar of the Eastern churches", Popular Astronomy 32 (1924) 407–411 (page 411). This is a translation of M. MilanSyria: World Council of Churches (WCC) / Middle East Council of Churches Consultation (MECC). 10 March 1997.
Lash, Ephrem (Archimandrite) (25 January 2007). "On the Holy and Great Sunday of Pascha". Monastery of Saint Andrew the First Called, Manchester, England. Archived from the original on 9 April 2007. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
"Pentecost Sunday". About.com. Retrieved 28 March 2013.
Notes for the Easter Vigil, website of Lutheran pastor Weitzel
Catholic Activity: Easter Vigil, entry on catholicculture.org
Easter observed at Sunrise Celebration, report of Washington Post April 2012
Sunrise Service At Abington Cemetery Is An Easter Tradition, report of Hartford Courant newspaper of 4 April 2016
"Easter sunrise services: A celebration of resurrection". The United Methodist Church. 5 April 2019. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
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Moroz, Vladimir (119.
Olp, Susan. "Celebrating Easter looks different for Eastern Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant churches". The Billings Gazette. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
Daniels, Bruce Colin (1995). Puritans at Play: Leisure and Recreation in Colonial New England. Macmillan, p. 89, ISBN 978-0-31216124-8
Brownlee, William Craig (1824). "A Careful and Free Inquiry into the True Nature and Tendency of the ..."
See Quaker Faith & practice of Britain Yearly Meeting, Paragraph 27:42
Quaker life, December 2011: "Early Quaker Top 10 Ways to Celebrate (or Not) "the Day Called Christmas" by Rob Pierson Archived 6 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
Pack, David. "The True Origin of Easter". The Restored Church of God. Archived from the original on 26 April 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2011.
http://www.fpchurch.org.uk

Public holidays Archived 4 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine, australia.gov.au
"Easter Sunday 2021: Date, Significance, History, Facts, Easter Egg". S A NEWS. 3 April 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
"Easter Symbols and Traditions – Holidays". History.com. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
Siemaszkiewicz, Wojciech; Deyrup, Marta Mestrovic (2013). Wallington's Polish Community. Arcadia Publishing. p. 101. ISBN 978-1439643303. The tradition of Easter eggs dates back to early Christians in Mesopotamia. The Easter egg is a reminder that Jesus rose from the grave, promising an eternal life for believers.
Donahoe's Magazine, Volume 5. T.B. Noonan. 1881. Retrieved 24 April 2014. The early Christians of Mesopotamia had the custom of dyeing and decorating eggs at Eas the emblem of the resurrection, as is evinced by the benediction of Pope Paul V., about 1610, which reads thus: 'Bless, O Lord! we beseech thee, this thy creature of eggs, that it may become a wholesome sustenance to thy faithful servants, eating it in thankfulness to thee on account of the resurrection of the Lord.' Thus the custom has come down from ages lost in antiquity.
Shoda, Richard W. (2014). Saint Alphonsus: Capuchins, Closures, and Continuity (1956–2011). Dorrance Publishing. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-4349-2948-8.
von Solodkoff, A. (1989). Masterpieces from the House of Fabergé. Abradale Press. ISBN 978-0810980891.
"Amazing archive images show how Cadbury cracked Easter egg market". Birmingham Mail. Retrieved 21 May 2019.
"Cadbury and National Trust accused of 'airbrushing faith' by Church of England for dropping 'Easter' from egg hunt". The Independent. 4 April 2017.
"Easter Egg Roll". whitehouse.gov. Archived from the original on 20 January 2021. Retrieved 10 April 2014 – via National Archives.
Anderson, Emma (10 April 2017). "Easter in Germany: The very deutsch origins of the Easter Bunny". The Local Germany. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
Conroy, Gemma (13 April 2017). "10 reasons Australians should celebrate bilbies, not bunnies, this Easter". Australian Geographic. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
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Greek words (Wiktionary): Πάσχα (Easter) vs. πάσχα (Passover) vs. πάσχω (to suffer)
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